Menu
To examine the representations of otherness and exoticism in early modern literature a post-colonial critical interrogation of the language and roles given to the sub-alterns will hopefully provide the most compelling conclusions on the respective representations of oppression and otherness. This essay will compare Othello (1604) and The Tempest (1611) by William Shakespeare adding historical context drawn from The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques and discoueries of the English nation (circa. 1580-1600) compiled by Richard Hakluyt. Othello and Caliban will be analysed as characters oppressed and labelled by western attitudes and hegemony; Caliban by the invading Prospero ('abhorred slave', 'Hag-seed', 'filth as thou art'. Act 1, Sc. 2. ln.498-520) and Othello through his 'moor' ancestry ('Moor', 'thick-lips', 'old black ram', 'Barbary horse'. Act 1, Sc. 1. ln.57-113) in Venetian culture. By interpreting their language and behaviour as methods of subverting power through either 'mimicry' or 'hybridisation' (Bhabha, 1994) the essay will focus on the bestial allusions as indicative of hegemonic oppression through dehumanisation. The dehumanisation process allows, as Bandura (2002) postulates, for a lack of moral self-sanctioning when treating other people and, as such, is a method by which the ruling classes are able to righteously persecute the 'others'. Post-colonial theory has numerous lines of thought ranging from psychoanalysis and deconstruction through Marxism and other culturally subjective models of critical theory. During an interview Edward Said author of Orientalism compared the work of Gerard de Nerval (Journey to the Orient, 1972) and Edward W. Lane (Manners and customs of the modern Egyptians, 1908) drawing the conclusion of a timeless east where all the peoples; Indian, Egyptian, Arabic etc.. remain the same. Essentially a western stereotype of eastern people. From Said's perspective the 'Oriental' people do not try to change these western ideas of their culture and are complacent to the derogatory otherness they represent. Said's idea of the Oriental lens is that western people are indoctrinated through media to believe a self-perpetuating literary representation of exotic foreign cultures. Where through intertextuality each account takes its veracity from equally erroneous accounts of the lands and its people. Suggesting that these stereotypes have perpetuated themselves through literature inspires criticism of how western enterprises such as Hollywood still govern western thought on Oriental morality and behaviour. From Prospero's perspective Caliban's attempted 'rape' of Miranda (Act 1, Sc. 2 ln.499-503) is unacceptable behaviour causing him to treat Caliban as a lesser being, a monster. This may indicate Said's lens as some interpretation as to foreign cultures attitudes towards sex are questionable by western traditions. Caliban's actions may have been acceptable in the sense that his culture does not identify a system of marriage or of female independence but instead follows a more natural lawless frame of existence. As part of the ecosystem of the island Caliban could only draw his experience of reproduction from the inhabitants, mostly animals, who have no concept of rape. This is the most prominent difference between Caliban and Othello, Othello has learned enough of western culture to understand and mimic the traditions in Venice. The Post-colonial theory put forwards by Gayatri Spivak in her essay Can the sub-altern speak? (In: Nelson & Grossberg, 1988) Highlighted the issues with contemporaneous criticisms bias towards western cultural traditions. Through her definition of the sub-altern as 'any social group that is in any way outside the hegemonic power structure of a colonised area' Spivak proposed the idea that the sub-altern performs in ways to access power in these hegemonic structures. Othello has gained prestige through combat which in turn won him the honour of being tangibly accepted into the social hierarchy. Whilst still being identified as a moor, and thereby a sub-altern, Othello's use of language allows him access to the upper echelons of Venetian society, but the same language is also what brings about his downfall.
Iago's brilliant manipulation of events and 'retelling' of situations denotes the oppressive power he holds with language. Othello who speaks so well at the onset becomes more and more entangled by the lies Iago fabricates. Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin (The empire writes back, 2003) suggest “language is a fundamental site of struggle for post-colonial discourse because the colonial process itself begins in language.[...] To name the world is to understand it, to know it and to have control over it”. Said backs this point as well by describing the census of Egypt carried out by Napoleon, he purports the notion that the act of knowing more of a land than its native residents fundamentally shifts the power between two countries; in Said's words “a power to be there and to see in expert ways things that the natives themselves can't see”(Media education foundation, Edward Said on Orientalism, 10:27). Hakluyt through his collection has created a great amount of power in the English nation by collating and describing observations of indigenous people the world over. Shakespeare utilises the interest there was in exotic lands and cultures to suit the needs of his contemporary audience. The Tempest especially indulges the viewers who wish to imagine the spectacle of a world gone mad, a land of dragones, basiliks and cameleopardales (Hakluyt, 1927). To stop representing orientals in such stereotypes would only serve to remove the magic from their culture in western eyes. As an inspirational source mythology has many varied traditions, the concept of men merged with beasts has been a long standing metaphoric image through western history; from centaurs, Medusa and mermaids the history of animal like beings has long been represented in western art and myth. The usual denotation is that these unions are the result of a curse as or that the being is the by-product of some unnatural union between two entities. Othello can be said to be a play showing that this metamorphosis of man into savage is one which can be provoked by language. The power of language is such that, as in western mythology, one can curse a person with it and transpose them with the qualities of an animal. Othello undergoes a process of bestialisation as the play progresses, his use of language during the early parts of the play are of a style more suited to western manners “Rude am I in my speech / and little blessed with the soft phrase of peace” (Act 1. Sc.3 ln.91-92) a statement delivered in a way contrary to its meaning. Yet the more Iago goads him the more savage his use of language becomes; Othello: […]Arise, black vengeance, from thy hollow hell! Yield up, O love, thy crown and hearted throne To tyrannous hate! Swell, bosom, with thy fraught, For „tis of aspics‟ tongues! Iago: Yet be Content Othello: O, blood, blood, blood! (Act.3 Sc.3. Ln.492-497) This demonisation and bestial representation of the Orientals based on religion and myth had been something common to Europe for over 500 years. Pope Urban began the crusades with the sentiment; “What a disgrace if a race so despicable, degenerate, and enslaved by demons, should overcome a people endowed with faith in Almighty God [...].” (In: Bandura, A. 2002). However it is first in Iago that we see the despicable and degenerate moral rejection of self-sanction. During a conversation with Roderigo Iago says “Virtue! a fig! 'tis in ourselves that we are thus / or thus. Our bodies are our gardens, to the which / our wills are gardeners:[...]” Iago comes across as a character holding little or no concern for anything other than himself. His morality is disturbed by the promotion of Michael Cassio (Act 1. Sc.1 ln.9-40) and the thought that Othello had slept with his wife (Act 2. Sc.1 l.1100). The crowds at the time may have been perturbed by the roles of Othello and Iago, the 'evil moor' assuming a benevolent and dignified role whereas the scheming debase villain is European. A historical context of English interactions with exotic cultures provides a frame from which to view the contemporary opinions of the renaissance. As an interesting foreshadowing to the Orientalist criticism Hakluyt remarked “Wherof me thinkes I see it is like to come to passe, that whilest one people scant knoweth the name of another,(and yet almost neighbours) all that shall this daie be written or reported of theim, shalbe compted and refused as lyes.” (preface to Affrike). As a proactive defensive of his work it serves as a reminder that these stereotypes and descriptions may not be true but they are as he has heard or read them to be and as such “this maner of knowledge and experience, is of it self so pleasant, so profitable and so praise worthy[...]” that it is worth pursuing. Whilst Said may be commenting on centuries of oppressive writing Hakluyt is at least offering the opinion that his work is fanciful and meant to be enjoyed, the pleasant and profitable exercise of learning about exotic cultures is a praiseworthy pursuit. However the act of attempting to comprehend foreign cultures within a native culture will always lead to a discordant appreciation of values, despite this Said has also tried to encourage an appreciation of the exotic myth of oriental culture but also a more evolved understanding of its contemporary people. Though noble in its aims Hakluyt's representations of the exotic cultures of lands is one biased towards English imperialism, and so within his works the distancing of self and other through a process of derision provides an example of the creation of hegemonic values most noticeably in religion. Hakluyt described the peoples of the east “[as] become the folowers and worshippers of Mahomet and his erronious doctrine” followed by his descriptions of their history as desendants of Cham: For Cham,[...] lefte no trade of religion to his posteritie, because he none had learned of his father. Whereof it came to passe, that when in processe of tyme they ware encreased to to many for that londe: beyng sent out as it ware, swarme aftre swarme into other habitations and skatered at length into sondrie partes of the worlde (for this banysshed progeny grewe aboue measure) some fel into errours wherout thei could neuer vnsnarle Hakluyt has created a derogatory 'otherness' in the Arabic ancestry, they are the progeny of a chastised son and thus their views and beliefs are not what they should be. They are animalised as 'swarme after swarme', insect like and destructive, unable to 'unsnarle' (untangle) themselves from their errors. The accounts from Hakluyt at times follow the writings of Sir John Mandeville (circa 1371). This examples Said view that the literary representations perpetuate from one account to another, both texts refer to many differing types of people indiginous to the Orient most notably a race 'who have no heads and eyes upon their shoulders' ; It is redde […] There are also that lacke neckes, and haue their eyes in their shoulders. Ther are also beside these, certeine saluages with dogges heades, and shacke heared on their bodies, that make a very terrible charringe with their mouthes. But in these and suche like tales of the Indians, and their countrie: for that a manne had nede of a redie beliefe that should take theim for truthes, one had not niede to bee to large: considerynge specially that menne nowe a daies, will skante beleue the reporte of other mens writinges, in the thinges that almost lye vndre their noses. (Chapter 8, Volume 6. Principal navigations) The influx of trade through the eastern routes had brought western an eastern cultures together for many centuries, and yet still there were visions of these mystical dog headed savages. Hakluyt even admits to the lack of veracity in these accounts but having no experience of the areas himself regurgitates the same fiction as Mandeville. To understand this as a form of oppression Banbura uses the term advantageous comparison a method of creating reason for admonishing set beliefs or races. Iago uses a similar form of advantageous comparison when justifying his anger at Michael Cassio's promotion (Act. 1 Sc.1 ln.19-29) for Banbura advantageous comparison is indicative of a utilitarian dynamic. Iago's ends always justify their means his desire is to replace Othello's noble countenance with that of a ram, horse or beast. Iago employs a preconceived Oriental stereotype of savagery to diffuse himself of responsibility and actively justify dehumanising his victim. This theatrical revenge and metaphoric strategy Iago created serves as his own Oriental lens through which his behaviour can be warranted. He actively diminishes his self-sanction by flagrantly contrasting inhumanities, i.e. the bestial representations of Othello, to allow for his reprehensible actions to be removed of blame. By understanding Homi Bhabha's ideas of hybridisation and mimicry (The location of culture, 1994) as means by which the sub-altern accesses power within the systems of colonisation. To Bhabha “the representation of difference must not be hastily read as the reflection of pre-given ethnic or cultural traits set in the fixed tablet of tradition. The social articulation of difference, from the minority perspective, is a complex, on-going negotiation that seeks to authorize cultural hybridities that emerge in moments of historical transformation ”. Bhabha's described a 'liminal' space where cultural meaning is created, a negotiation where the binary oppositions of black/white, self/other, are merged into a 'hybrid'. A binary contrast can be drawn which parallels the coloniser with the colonised, through the interactions of Iago and Othello, the subversion of power demonstrates a means the coloniser can employ to dehumanise the sub-altern and how the sub-altern can utilise this lens to further their own upward mobility. Othello makes use of the depictions of animalistic natives (Act 1, Sc. 3. ln.487-490) to further his standing in the Venetian society and to win Desdamona's heart. Othello actively hybridises the western literature (i.e. Hakluyt, Mandeville) into a colourful self history increasing his own standing by being of, but different to, the 'others'. This positions Othello within the liminal space Bhabha conceived by distancing himself from his native land but remaining a sub-altern in the Venetian society. Iago sums up Othello's current status as a man controlling his savagery in his words; [...]why, the power and corrigible authority of this lies in our wills. If the balance of our lives had not one scale of reason to poise another of sensuality, the blood and baseness of our natures would conduct us to most preposterous conclusions: but we have reason to cool our raging motions, our carnal stings, our unbitted lusts, whereof I take this that you call love to be a sect or scion. (Act.1 Sc.3 ln. 681-690) Shakespeare has forefronted the human nature in Othello and through his use of Iago as a character explored the lengths to which a person can justify their behaviour and how these justifications can be based on fabrications. Just as the oriental lens is skewed to represent eastern peoples as savage in western culture it is a savageness that is shared by all people but tempered by reason. Effectively Shakespeare is commenting that people should be aware that even in our western culture savagery exists but in forms more subtle, that through language and reason we can convince ourselves that our actions are not that of a savage. This is the distance that defines 'otherness' and why it is acceptable to treat 'others' as being not worthy of the same rights and treatment of anybody else. Whilst Caliban does, by our legal and cultural tradition, in someways act savage it is only by our definition that he remains so. We conclude that his actions are reprehensible and that Prospero is justified in punishing him for the attempted rape but when the stigma of our own cultural values are removed there is no punishment for such actions in nature. It is the human nature which through centuries of cultural change has developed its own opinions on ethics, these ethics are largely transitory and by today's standards some of the renaissance behaviour would be deemed savage. Yet it may always be the case that societies will judge actions by the contemporary hegemony they experience, the Muslims of Mandeville's day judged western society as 'wicked' just as in the crusades the Muslims themselves were called despicable. This form of comparison stemming from and changing through early modern literature drives forwards global understandings of ethics and as such can be a beneficial process, and yet, it will always remain a process steeped in difficulty as societies distance themselves based on their traditions. References
0 Comments
Leave a Reply. |
Archives
November 2019
Categories
|